King Arthur
Literary Legends
In the period of national origins history and legend are inextricably mingled. In the
course of oral transmission historic narrative necessarily becomes more or less
legendary. Details are emphasized or exaggerated, actions ascribed to different
motives, facts are forgotten or suppressed, chronological and geographical data
confused, and traits and motifs from older tales are added. Gradually this
tradition, passing from mouth to mouth, takes on a more definite shape and a
more distinct outline, and finally it passes into literature and receives a
permanent and fixed form. We are seldom able to give a clear and connected
account of the origin and development of a saga or legend. In most cases the
literary sources on which we depend for our knowledge are of comparatively late
date, and even the earliest of them present the legend in an advanced phase of
evolution. Of preceding phases we can form an opinion only through a critical
analysis and comparison of the sources. In this process of reconstruction much
must be left to conjecture; uncertainty necessarily prevails, and difference of
opinion is unavoidable.
We shall treat here of the following legends:
Germanic Heroic Saga
Legends of Charlemagne
Roland
Geneviève (Genovefa) of Brabant
Arthur (Artus)
Tristan and Isolde
Lohengrin, the Knight of the Swan
Tannhauser
Robert the Devil
The Wandering Jew
The Flying Dutchman
William Tell
Faust
Germanic Heroic Saga
A brief notice of this vast subject must suffice. The Euhemeristic method of
interpretation, which attempts to explain the sagas on a purely historical basis,
is now generally discredited. A blending of mythic and historic elements is now
conceded to be a necessary process in all saga-formation. But the view, until
recently generally accepted, which interprets the mythical traits as due to the
personification and symbolization of natural phenomena, has been criticized on
good grounds. No doubt, nature symbolism plays a large rôle in mythology
proper, but it seems to have little, if anything, to do with the development of the
primitive hero-tales. Their roots seem to lie rather in fairy-lore. Thus in the
greatest and oldest of Germanic heroic sagas, that of Siegfried, the nucleus is
apparently a primitive Low German tale of greed and murder and cruel
vengeance, amplified by motifs like those of the dragon-fight and the Sleeping
Beauty. Siegfried, who owns a treasure, is murdered by his covetous
brother-in-law Hagen. Grimhild (Kriemhild), Siegfried's widow, marries another
king, who actuated by greed, murders Hagen. Grimhild in revenge murders her
second husband. This seems to be the bare outline of the old tale which was
combined with a new historic saga, traceable to the destruction of the
Burgundians by the Huns in 437, and the sudden death of the great Hunnish
leader, Attila, after his marriage to a German princess, Ildico (i.e. Hilde), in 452.
Now, when the two sagas were fused, Ildico was conceived as a Burgundian
princess who slew Attila in revenge for the destruction of her kin. Sweeping
changes in the action and the motives of the story were a necessary
consequence of this fusion. The Norse version ("Edda", "Volsungasaga") and the
German version of the "Nibelungenlied" both tell of Grimhild's revenge. But in the
former she kills her husband, the slayer of her brother, as in the older form of the
legend; in the latter version she kills her brothers, in revenge for the murder of her
husband (see GERMANY, sub-title Literature, III).
While Siegfried is a mythical figure, Dietrich of Bern is historic. He is the famous
East-Gothic king, Theodoric, who ruled over Italy (493-526). Dietrich and Bern are
the German forms of Theodoric and Verona. The heroic figure of the king became
the centre of the great mass of Gothic tradition, and a whole cycle of sagas
gathered about his name. Many local legends were drawn into this cycle. The
basic historic facts were completely distorted in process of legendary formation,
and when the great Dietrich saga appeared in literature, in the Old High German
"Hildebrandslied", in numerous Middle High German epics (see GERMANY,
sub-title Literature, III), and the" Thidrekssaga" (which, though written in Norse
about 1250, is based on Low German tradition), little that is historical remained.
Myth and history are also combined in the Beowulf saga, which forms the
subject of the oldest English epic. Beowulf, a prince of the Geátas, comes to
help the Danish king, Hrothgar, against Grendel, a fiendish monster, who had
ravaged the Danish realm. In two mighty combats he slays Grendel and
Grendel's mother. Returning, he becomes king of his people, over whom he rules
happily for fifty years. Once more the aged hero goes forth, to battle with a
fire-breathing dragon that devastates the land. He kills the monster, but dies of
injuries sustained in the fight. It is generally believed that the Beowulf saga is of
Scandinavian origin. But whether the epic arose in Scandinavia or in England is a
question that has not been decided.
Legends of Charlemagne
It was inevitable that Charlemagne should become the hero of romance and
legend. His actual exploits were magnified and additional ones were invented or
transferred to him from other popular heroes, especially Frankish kings of the
same name, like Charles Martel and Charles the Bald. The formation of legend
relating to Charlemagne began even during the lifetime of the great ruler. In the
book of the so-called Monachus Sangallensis, which was written after 883 on the
basis of oral tradition, he appears already as a legendary figure. Among the
stories there related are those of the Iron Charles entering Pavia, where the
Langobardian King Desiderius, and Otker the Frank await his coming, and the
latter swoons at the sight of the mailed emperor; or of the giant Eishere who, in
battle against the Slays, spears seven to nine heathens like frogs on the point of
his lance; of the ruthless slaughter of all those captured Saxons whose stature
exceeded the measure of the emperor's sword. Unlike the heroic sagas, the
Charlemagne legends from their very inception show an ecclesiastical tinge. In
this connexion we may recall the canonization of Charles by the antipope
Paschal III in 1165, which, of course, never possessed validity.
When the Franks lost their Germanic character their hero became identified with
the French nationality. Stories connected with his name were more or less
current in various parts of Germany. It was said that he did not die but resided in
the Odenberg, Hessia, or the Untersberg (near Salzburg), whence he would
reappear to bring back the empire to glory. His justice also was proverbial, as is
attested by the story, told in German chronicles, of the serpent ringing the bell
that Charles had set up before his palace for all those having a grievance to bring
to his attention. But he never became prominent in German literature, whereas in
France he became the very centre of the national heroic épopées. His legendary
deeds and those of his paladins were celebrated in numerous epics or
"Chansons de Geste" ("Chanson de Roland", "Pèlerinage", "Aspremont",
"Fierabras", "Ogier", Renaud de Montauban", etc.). At first these poems were
only loosely connected; later on attempts were made at cyclic unification,
resulting in such compilations as the "Charlemagne" of Girard d'Amiens (c.
1300), the German "Karimeinet", the Norwegian "Karlamagnússaga" and the
Italian prose romance "Reali di Francia" of Andrea de' Magnabotti. Much
legendary material is also found in chronicles, like those of the above-mentioned
monk of St. Gall, of the monk of Saintonge, of Alberic de Trois Fontaines (c.
1250), of Philippe Mousket (c. 1241), and the German chronicle of Enenkel.
What is related of Charlemagne in these sources is a medley of fact and fiction.
The story of his parents, Pepin the Short and Bertha (in "Berte aux grands
pieds"), is the familiar theme of virtue slandered but in the end vindicated. To
escape the persecutions of his bastard brothers, Charles takes refuge in Toledo
with the heathen king Galafre, whose daughter Galienne he marries, after he has
punished his wicked brothers and regained his father's kingdom ("Charlemagne",
"Karlmeinet", "Karleto", "Cronica general"). Possibly this reflects historical
events from the period of Charles Martel, who was of illegitimate birth and
experienced difficulties in his accession to he throne. At any rate, Pepin and
Bertha are historic personages. Wholly fabulous, however, is the story of the
pilgrimage undertaken by the emperor and his peers to the Holy Land, whence
they bring back the Passion relics, which were deposited in the Church of St.
Denis. Probably the legend arose in connexion with these relics, which were
actually presented by the Patriarch of Jerusalem about 800.
In the poems and romances that deal with the wars of Charlemagne in Spain
[(778) "Chanson de Roland"] and Italy [(773) "Ogler", "Fierabras", "Aspremont"]
the principal rôle is assigned not to Charles, but to his paladins (Roland, Olivier,
Turpin) or vassals (sons of Aimon, Ogier). The Saxon wars have left little trace in
French poetry [Bodel's "Saisnes" (c. 1200), and an older "Guitalin", known only
from the Norse version in the "Karlamagnússaga"]. In Germany their memory is
preserved by many a legend concerning the heroic Widukind (Wittekind). In
French versions the conversion of the Saxon chieftain is represented as insincere
and of short duration, in German legend, on the contrary, it is glorified by miracle.
While Widukind in the disguise of a beggar attends the Easter celebration in the
Frankish camp, he sees the image of the Christ-Child at the moment of the
elevation of the Host during Mass and his conversion is the result (Grimm,
"Deutsche Sagen", 448). In a narrative of the life of the Empress Mathilde (974)
Widukind is made to fight in single combat with Charles, and on being defeated
turns Christian. The French version also knows of this combat, but here Guiteclin
is killed. The name of Frankfort (the ford of the Franks) is explained by a German
legend which relates how the hard-pressed Franks were saved by a hind that
showed them a place where they could cross the River Main in safety (Grimm,
op. cit., 449).
In the older French epics, devoted to the glorification of royalty, Charlemagne is
represented as the incarnation of majesty, valour, and justice, the champion of
God's Church against the infidel. In the later epics, the so-called feudal épopée
("Ogier", "Renaud de Montauban", "Doon de Mayence", etc.), which reflect the
historic struggles of the monarchy with turbulent vassals, the great emperor
appears in quite a different light, as a vindictive tyrant and unjust oppressor. Nor
does he appear to advantage in the vanous legends that tell of his love affairs,
among which is the well-known German legend of his attachment to a dead
woman due to the magic power of a jewel hidden in her mouth. This legend was
localized at Aachen. A courtier who had gained possession of the talisman
dropped it in a hot spring. Henceforth the emperor felt an irresistible love for this
spot and caused Aachen to be built there.
Through French mediation the Carlovingian romances came to other nations. In
England, Caxton published "The Lyfe of Charles the Grete" (1485) and "The four
sonnes of Aymon" (1486). Lord Berners translated "Huon of Bordeaux" in 1534.
In Germany the "Rolandslied" of Konrad der Pfaffe the poem of Stricker
(thirteenth century), the "karlmeinet" (fourteenth century), and the chap-books of
the fifteenth century, in Scandinavia the "Karlamagnússaga" (c. 1300), in the
Netherlands numerous translations like "Carel ende Elegast" show the spread of
the Charlemagne legend. In Italy it was especially favoured. There it inspired the
Franco-Italian epics and the bulky romance of Magnabotti, and culminated in the
famous chivalric epics of Boiardo and Ariosto.
Roland
Of the paladins, usually twelve in number, with whom legend surrounds
Charlemagne, the most famous is Roland, whose heroic death forms the theme
of the "Chanson de Roland" (c. 1080). This poem relates how the rear-guard of
the Frankish army, returning from a victorious campaign against the Saracens in
Spain, is treacherously surprised by the enemy at Roncevaux, and how Roland,
Olivier, and Turpin, after incredible deeds of valour, are slain before the emperor
arrives to bring help. The events narrated here have a historical basis; the battle
of Roncevaux (Roncesvalles) actually took place on 15 August, 778. According
to Einhard (Vita Caroli Magni, IX) the Frankish rear-guard was cut to pieces by
Basque marauders, among the slain being Hruodlandus, prefect of the March of
Brittany. In the poem the defeat is laid to the treason of Ganelon; the vengeance
which the emperor exacts from the enemy and the punishment of the traitor are
vividly narrated. The legend represents Roland as Charlemagne's nephew, the
son of the emperor's sister Bertha and of Duke Milo; of Aglant. The story of their
romantic love, their quarrel with the emperor, and their ultimate reconciliation to
him figures prominently in Italian versions ("Reali di Francia"). Roland is a
paragon of knightly virtue. Quite young he distinguishes himself in wars against
the Saracens in Italy ("Aspremont") and the Saxons, in both campaigns saving
his uncle from threatened disaster.
In Italian literature Roland becomes the chief hero of the chivalric épopée
represented at its best by Pulci's "Morgante maggiore" (1482), Boiarde's
"Orlando innamorato" (1486), and Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso" (1516). In Spain
the tradition underwent a complete change; the defeat of the Franks was
regarded as a Spanish victory, and the real hero of Roncevaux is the national
champion, Bernalde del Carprio, Roland's opponent. The German poem of
Konrad der Pfaffe has been mentioned above.
Geneviève (Genovefa) of Brabant
This legend may be discussed in connexion with the Carlovingian cycle,
inasmuch as the events therein related are usually assigned to the eighth
century, to the period of the wars of Charles Martel against the Saracens. It has
for its theme the familiar story of persecuted innocence, and is therefore closely
akin to the legends of Griseldis, Hildegard, Hirlanda of Brittany, and other
heroines of suffering. According to the usual version, Geneviève is the wife of the
Count Palatine Siegfried, residing in the region of Trier. When he is called away
on an expedition against the infidels, he entrusts his wife and castle to the care
of his major-domo Golo. Inflamed with sinful passion, Golo makes advances to
the countess, and on being repulsed, falsely accuses her to her absent lord of
adultery. The count sends word to put his wife and her new-born son to death,
and Golo bids two servants execute this command. But moved by pity they let
her go, and she takes refuge in a cave in the Ardennes together with her child,
who is miraculously suckled by a roe. At the end of six years Count Siegfried,
who has in the meantime repented of his rash deed, is led to this cave while
pursuing the roe, and a happy reunion is the result. Golo dies a traitor's death,
his limbs being torn asunder by four oxen. The legend adds that a chapel was
built and dedicated to Our Lady at the very spot where the cave was. It is the
Chapel of Frauenkirchen, near Laach, and there Geneviève is said to be buried.
The origin of the legend is wholly unknown. The oldest versions are found in
manuscript dating from the fifteenth century, most of them hailing from Laach. An
account was written in 1472 by Matthias Emichius (Emmich) a Carmelite friar,
later auxiliary Bishop of Mainz. The learned antiquarian Marquard Freher
appended a version of the legend drawn from a Laach manuscript to his "Origines
Palatinæ" (1613). The legend is told in connexion with the foundation of the
chapel of Frauenkirchen. In all these versions the time of action is that of a
Bishop Hildulf of Trier. But no such bishop is known. Nor is it possible to identify
Geneviève with any historic personage. As for Siegfried, there were several
counts of that name, but nothing is known of them to permit of an identification.
An historical basis for the legend has not been found. The arguments for a
mythical origin are futile. So the opinion has been advanced (by Seuffert) that the
legend is the fabrication of a monk from the monastery of Laach, and dates from
the fourteenth century.
The fame of the story is due to the work of the French Jesuit René de Cerisiers.
His book, entitled "L'Innocence reconnue ou Vie de Sainte Geneviève de
Brabant", won immediate popularity. The oldest datable edition is from 1638. Two
years later this story, together with those of Jeanne d'Arc and Hirlanda, was
reprinted in "Les trois états de l'innocence affligée", etc. In Cerisiers' version the
legend has been considerably amplified; its pious character is emphasized,
especially through the copious introduction of miracles. Here also the child
receives the Biblical name Benoni (i.e. son of my sorrow, Gen., xxxv, 18) whence
the "Schmerzenreich" of the German version. Reference to Charles Martel fixed
the eighth century as the time of action.
Cerisiers' work inspired a number of Dutch and German books on the legend, in
all of which the material is treated with more or less freedom. The authors of the
first two German versions are Jesuits; these versions were followed by the
"Auserlesenes History-Buch" (Dillingen, 1687) of Father Martin of Cochem (d.
1712), a Capuchin friar. Here the story of St. Geneviève is given among a number
of pious legends, and it was this version that made the legend popular in
Germany, where it became the subject of chap-books. Some of these books
base their account on Dutch versions, the first of which had appeared in 1645. In
these Protestant influence is unmistakable; the miracles, already curtailed in the
German version, are here completely expunged. Of English versions we have at
least two, one of which "The Triumphant Lady, or the Crowned Innocence"
(London, 1654) is by Sir W. Lower.
Arthur (Artus)
A famous legendary King of the Britons, and the central figure of a great medieval
cycle of romance. His court is represented as a model court for the cultivation of
every knightly virtue. He himself presides over the famous Round Table, about
which is assembled a band of chosen knights. The adventures of these knights
form the subject-matter of the numerous romances of the Arthurian cycle.
The history of the origin and development of the Arthurian legend is not clear. The
very existence of Arthur has been doubted, and attempts have been made to
reduce him to a myth. But it is now well known that he was an historic figure, a
British chieftain of the end of the fifth and the beginning of the sixth century A.D.,
who championed the cause of the native Britons against the foreign invaders,
especially the Angles and Saxons.
The oldest British chronicler of Wales, Gildas, in his "De Excidio Britanniæ" (c.
540) knows of the great victory of the Britons at Mount Badon, but makes no
mention of Arthur. The first record of him is found in the "Historia Brittonum"
(written 796), ascribed to Nennius. There he appears already as a legendary
figure, the champion of an oppressed people against the cruel invaders, whom he
defeats in twelve great battles, the last being fought at Mons Badonis. So by the
end of the eighth century the legend of a great champion was already current
among the Celtic population of the British Isles and Brittany and this legend was
further developed and amplified by the addition of new legendary traits.
It received its literary form in the "Historia regum Brittanniæ", a Latin chronicle,
written between 1118 and 1135 by the Welsh monk Godfrey (Galfridus, Gruffydd)
of Monmouth. This work, purporting to give a history of the British kings from the
mythical Brutus to Cadwallo (689), is a curious medley of fact and fable. The
exploits related of Arthur are wholly fabulous. His father is Uther Pendragon
(Uther dragon-head), his mother Igerna, wife of the Duke of Cornwall. Merlin the
Wizard by a trick has effected their union. Arthur becomes ruler at the age of
fifteen and at once enters upon his career of victory by defeating the Saxons. He
marries Guanhumara (Gwenhwyvar Ginevra, Guinevere) and establishes a court
the fame of which spreads far and wide. In a series of wars he conquers
Scotland, Ireland, Norway, and Gaul. Finally he makes war against Rome, but,
though victorious, is compelled to turn back to protect his wife and kingdom from
the treacherous designs of his nephew Mordred. In the battle of Camlan
(Cambula) the latter is killed, but Arthur, too, is mortally wounded and
mysteriously removed to the Isle of Avalon, whence he will reappear (so other
chronicles relate), some day to restore his people to power.
It is not known with certainty what sources Godfrey used. Probably he drew his
information from Welsh chronicles, as well as from oral tradition preserved by
Breton story-tellers. Much, also, is his own invention. The work won immediate
favour, and became the basis of several other rhymed chronicles, such as the
"Brut" of Wace (or Gace) written about 1157, and that of Layamon (c. 1200), the
first English work in which the legend of Arthur appears. In Godfrey's history
mention is made of Arthur's court as far-famed, but the first explicit reference to
the Round Table is found in Wace's "Brut". From this reference it is perfectly
clear that this legendary institution was already well known in Brittany when
Wace wrote. At a later period, when the Grail legend was fused with that of
Arthur, the Round Table was identified with the Grail table instituted by Joseph of
Arimathea, and was then said to have been founded by Uther Pendragon at the
suggestion of Merlin (so in the Grail romance of Robert de Boron).
Towards the end of the twelfth century the Arthurian legend makes its
appearance in French literature in the epics of Chrestien de Troyes. How this
material, the matière de Bretagne, was transmitted, is one of the most difficult
and disputed questions in connexion with the history of medieval French
literature. It is admitted that Godfrey and the chroniclers cannot have been the
only sources; the subject matter of the romances is too varied for that, and
points to the influence of popular tradition. Moreover, the material has been
entirely transformed under the influence of the ideals of knight-errantry and
courtly love. These deeds dominated all the Arthurian romances, and gave them
their immense vogue with the polite society of the Middle Ages. Arthur plays but
a passive rôle in them; the chief stress falls on the adventures of the Knights of
the Table Round. Of these Gawain (Gwalchmai, Gauvain) already figured
prominently in the history of Godfrey, where he is called Walgannus. Perceval,
the Peredur of Welsh folk-tales and of Godfrey, has become especially famous
as the hero of the quest of the Holy Grail. Originally his legend, like that of the
Grail, was wholly independent of that of Arthur. Other famous legendary heroes
like Lancelot and Tristram were also joined to the company of the Table Round,
and their legends likewise incorporated into that of Arthur. So the great cycle of
Arthurian romances gradually came into existence.
Though French mediation these romances spread through Europe. In Germany
they inspired the courtly epics (see GERMANY, sub-title Literature, III). They
also came to Italy, Spain, and Norway. In England Sir Thomas Malory gathered
them and used them for his famous prose romance "Morte Arthure" (finished
1470, printed by Caxton, 1485). To Malory the legend of Arthur owes its
popularity in England. Its influence is felt in Spenser's "Faerie Queene", and
Milton, as is well known, thought of writing an English Arthuriad. In modern times
Tennyson has revived the legend in his "Idylls of the King".
Tristan and Isolde
Among the knights of Arthur appears also Tristan (Tristram), whose love for
Isolde and its tragic end are the subject of some of the most famous romances in
literature. Here, too, we have an originally independent legend of Celtic origin, but
elaborated by French poets into a love romance. The names Tristan and Mark
point to Celtic heroic saga as the root of the story -- Drust or Drustan as a name
of Pictish kings can be traced as far back as the eighth century. The name of
Morholt is probably Germanic; so is Isold (i.e. Iswalda) or Iselt (i.e. Ishilt). These
Germanic elements date from the period of Viking rule in Dublin during the ninth
and tenth centuries. The legend, no doubt, took shape in Britain and then
wandered to Brittany, experiencing in the course of its development various
modifications. New motifs, like that of the love potion, the story of the vicarious
wooing, the trick whereby Isolde successfully undergoes the ordeal, were added.
They are familiar from story-literature. Other motifs, such as the ship with black
sails, are clearly traceable to antique romance, in this case to the Theseus
legend. By the middle of the twelfth century a full-fledged Tristan romance
existed, but the literary versions that we possess are of a later date. It is known
that Chrestien de Troyes wrote a poem about Mark and Isolde, but it is lost. The
French versions extant are those of Bérol a Breton jongleur, or glee-man, and of
Thomas, an Anglo-Norman trouvère, who wrote between 1160 and 1170. Bérol's
version, the date of which is a matter of dispute, is the basis of the German
"Tristan" of Eilhard von Oberg, while Gottfried von Strassburg followed Thomas.
Both versions agree for the main traits of the legend, however much they differ in
detail.
Lohengrin, the Knight of the Swan
In Wolfram's Parzival", where a brief outline of the story of Lohengrin is given at
the close, the legend appears as a part of the Grail cycle, and therefore also of
the Arthurian cycle. But originally it was wholly independent of both. In the oldest
literary versions, the French poems of the "Chevalier au cygne" (the earliest
dates from the beginning of the thirteenth century), the tale of the Knight of the
Swan is connected with Godfrey of Bouillon, and the French poems themselves
are part of an epic cycle dealing with the Crusades. How this connexion came
about is not known. But it was certainly well known by the end of the twelfth
century, as is proved by an allusion to it in the history of the Crusades written by
Bishop William of Tyre (d. about 1184). The purpose was evidently to glorify the
House of Bouillon by ascribing to it a supernatural origin. The story as given in
the French poems is as follows: before Emperor Otto holding court at Nymwegen
the Duchess of Bouillon pleads for justice against the Saxon Duke Renier, who
has made grave charges against her. She cannot find a champion to prove her
innocence in single combat, when suddenly an unknown knight appears in a skiff
drawn by a swan. He defeats her opponent and marries her daughter Beatris. But
he imposes the condition that his wife must never ask his name or lineage.
When, after seven years of wedded life, she breaks this command, the unknown
knight leaves her. A daughter named Ida has resulted from this union. She
marries Count Eustache of Boulogne and becomes the mother of Godfrey of
Bouillon.
The kernel of this legend seems to be an old genealogical myth, such as that
told of Scyld in "Beowulf". A mysterious stranger arrives in a rudderless ship
among a people becomes their ruler and the ancestor of the reigning house.
When his time is fulfilled, he departs as mysteriously as he has come. Such a
myth was current among Germanic tribes inhabiting the sea-coast. Possibly the
mysterious stranger originally was a solar deity and the swan a symbol of the
cloud. The story was designed to show the divine descent of the ruling house. Its
origin, whether Celtic or Germanic, is in dispute. The theme of the Lohengrin
legend, the union between a supernatural being and a mortal, is of frequent
recurrence in mythology and folk-lore.
With the tale of the swan-knight was combined an old Germanic fairy tale of
some children changed into swans by the evil arts of a wicked stepmother. Only
the little girl escapes and becomes the means of rescuing her brothers. this
story is familiar to readers of Grimm's fairy tales. In the French poems on this
subject, the children are the offspring of a union between a king and a fairy, and
the king's mother plays the villain's part. Their transformation into swans is the
result of their being deprived of the necklaces which they had when they were
born. When these are restored they regain their human form, all but one, who
has lost his necklace. He remains a swan and henceforth draws the skiff of his
brother, who is therefore called the knight of the swan. It is clear that this story
was added to account for the mysterious origin of the hero. Its earliest literary
record occurs in the Latin romance "Dolopathos", a collection of stories, mostly
of Oriental origin written by Jean de Hauteseille (Johannes de Alta Silva) at the
beginning of the thirteenth century. Here the characters are as yet unnamed. In
the French poem known as "Elioxe" (end of twelfth century) the hero is a king
named Lothair, the fairy is called Elioxe (Eliouse). In the versions of the
"Chevalier au cygne" the king's name is Oriant, his wife is called Beatris, his
mother Matabrune.
Through French mediation the legend passed into other lands. In England we
have the poem of the "Chevalere Assigne" and the prose romance of "Helyas,
Knight of the Swan" (edited by Thoms in "Early English Prose Romances"). In
Spain the legend was incorporated in the "Gran Conquista de Ultramar" (xlvii
sq.). There are also versions in Italy and Iceland. Of special interest is the
development of the legend in Germany.
In the French versions the swan-knight is called Helias (Elie). In Konrad von
Würzburg's epic "Der Schwanritter" (c. 1260) he remains unnamed. The lady in
distress is the Duchess of Brabant, the emperor is Charlemagne. The
swan-knight is not the ancestor of Godfrey of Bouillon, but of the dukes of
Cleves. Konrad's version is based on an unknown French source. So is the brief
outline given by Wolfram at the close of his "Parzival". There the legend is
connected with that of the Grail in that the hero is the son of Parzival, the
Grail-king. Here also he is called Loherangrin (i.e. Loherenc Garin, Garin the
Lotharingian). The duchess is Elsa of Brabant. Whether these changes in names
are Wolfram's own, or whether they were in his French source cannot be
decided. On the basis of Wolfram's outline, but amplified and expanded by the
introduction of wholly extraneous matter, arose between 12S3 and 1290 the
bulky German epic "Lohengrin", the work, it seems, of two different authors, but
unknown. The Lohengrin story is here a mere episode of the legendary minstrel
contest held at the Wartburg castle and is put into the mouth of Wolfram himself.
The accuser is here Count Friedrich Telramund, the emperor is Henry I the
Fowler, and a Duchess of Cleves instigates Elsa to put the forbidden question.
We see that in German versions Cleves figures in the legend; in fact, in some
chronicles the scene of action is laid there (see Grimm, "Deutsche Sagen", 4th
ed., ed. Steig, Berlin, 1905, no. 535), and the date given is 711. Fantastic
continuations are found in the poem called "Der jüngere Titurel" (c. 1260) and in
the bulky versified narrative of Ulrich Füetrer "Buch der Abenteue" (written c.
1490). According to the account there given, Lohengrin sallies forth a second
time, and comes to Lyzabori (Luxemburg) where he marries the Princess
Belaye. An attempt is made on his life by her jealous relatives, and, though it is
repulsed, Lohengrin succumbs to a wound received in the struggle. His wife dies
of grief.
Tannhauser
This legend, as related in German folk-songs of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, and their variants in Low German, Dutch, and Danish, is as follows:
Tannhauser, a minstrel knight, enters the mountain of Venus, a sort of
subterranean paradise where the heathen goddess holds her voluptuous court,
and for a year he revels in its unholy pleasures. Then a longing seizes upon him
to return to earth, and when, through the aid of Mary, whom he invokes, his wish
is realized, he hastens to Rome to implore pardon for his sin from Pope Urban
IV. This the pope refuses to grant; Tannhäuser cannot be saved any more than
the staff in the pontiff's hand can put forth fresh leaves. In despair the knight
returns to the mountain of Venus and is not seen again. Soon after, the staff
bursts into blossom and now messengers are sent to seek the knight, but too
late.
No doubt we have here a tale of originally heathen character, subsequently
Christianized. Its theme is the familiar story of the seduction of a human being by
an elf or fairy. But all the delights of the fairy-realm cannot make him forget his
earthly home, for which he longs. His desire is granted, but he is not happy, and
in the end returns to the fairy-land. This motif is a commonplace in folk-lore